AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE SECOND WORLD WAR.
Since the beginning of the Twentieth Century the blacks in America were already agitating for equality in social, political and economic spheres and this struggle was met with inhuman suppression at home. The geopolitical developments that followed later in the century help shape the success of civil rights agitation. Most important amongst them was the Second World War (WW II), which offered a fundamental opportunity for blacks in America to overcome discrimination and class difference.
The Situation of African Americans before Second World War
Before the War, African Americans were at the lowest rung of the American society. They lived in poverty, lacked education and therefore faced the highest rates of unemployment. The year 1920 was in fact, the highest water mark of black employment in American industry but these gains were swiftly eroded by the Great Depression.
Changes during the Second World War
The War provided African Americans with the opportunity to get out of the crushing rural poverty. Many Blacks joined the military, escaping a decade of Depression and tenant farming in the South and Midwest. 2 This was a departure from the First World War, where the number of blacks conscripted was quite minimal. Arguably, this trend helped to create an avenue out of the penury that had characterized their social status.
Andrew E. Kersten, African American and World War II, OAH Magazine of History,
16, No. 3, (2002)13.
2. Claudia Reinhardt and Bill Ganzel, Civil Rights for Minorities, Farming in the 1940s. (Data Base on-line) available from httpwww.cliffsnotes.comstudy_guideThe-Civil-Rights-Movement, accession number 25238.
Even though the Army enlisted blacks, segregation continued there were separate black infantry regiments under white commanders the Army Air Corp black fighter wing was completely separate with their training at an all black university at Tuskegee, Alabama. Segregation was also in the Navy where Negro units were assigned most menial jobs on ships whereas the Marine didnt accept blacks. Essentially, black and white soldiers were trained in different bases.
Changes after the Second World War
After the War, the fight against segregation took a new dimension with more players agreeing with the oppressed minorities that there was need for change. In 1946, the Federal Council of Churches adopted a report that set the Council to advocate against segregation. This meant that American Protestantism was being challenged by the question of race. Before the Second World War, the denomination paid little attention to race as a social issue. But after the War, it was a frequent subject of denominational pronouncement and editorials in church press. And this suggests that the War was crucial in placing pressure upon white attitude towards blacks.
At the outset, the era of the WW II was considered the forgotten years of Negro revolution. It was also considered a watershed in history, particularly with blacks making advances as workers and military personnel and communities around America witnessing a dramatic rise in black social activism and political participation.
1. Ibid, 13.
2. Ibid, accession number 25238
3. Edward Orser, Racial Attitudes in Wartime The Protestant Churches during the Second World War, Church History 41, No. 3, (Sept. 1972) 337.
This interpretation lost its strength over time, since the social, political and economic gains were lost in the postwar period, something that contributed to the disillusionment and upheavals of the 60s.1 When blacks returned from the War they found a country that still didnt grant them full rights, necessitating the formation of a movement to push for the expansion of civil rights.
However, the importance of the War cannot be gainsaid it helped transform the economic and social status of not only blacks but also all Americans. This makes the War an unprecedented era that offered a platform for African Americans to seek for the Double V victory over fascism abroad and apartheid at home.1
On the other hand, the War provided education opportunities for blacks and exposed them to urbanization. Some black soldiers who had left farm jobs in the South decided not to return home. They moved to cities looking for work, similar to the knowledge they had acquired in the military.
Combating Segregation within the Army and Society
The experience of the First World War was instrumental in the formation of the racial policy in the Army in the Second World War. The policys architects were veterans of the first war and demonstrated the prejudice of that era in their judgment. Civil rights activists on the other hand, sought to eliminate the segregationist practices employed in the mobilization of First World War and win a fair representation of blacks in the
These radical changes were resisted by traditionalist Army staff, citing their evaluation of the poor performance of black units in the first war. The policy however, increased the number of types of black units and provided a wider distribution of those units to arms and services Army Air Forces and Signal Corps, without explaining how the numerous skilled Negroes could efficiently be used within the limitations of these ranks. For the sake of efficiency, the Army had devised a social rather than a military policy for employment of black troops.
The concern about the troop morale and discipline and the attendant problem of racial violence did not lead to a substantial revision of the Armys racial policy. On the contrary, the Army staff continued to insist that segregation was a national issue and that the Armys task was to defend the country, not alter its social customs.
By 1943, Negroes inside and outside the War Department had almost exhausted arguments for a policy change. Worth noting is that, this was just a year before the Presidential elections. The representatives of 25 civil rights groups formulated demands they presented to presidential candidates. This involved full integration of the Army abolition of racial quotas abolition of segregation in recreational and other Army facilities development of an education program in race relations in the Army greater black participation in combat forces and the progressive removal of black troops where they are subject to disrespect, abuse or even violence.
When he assumed the Oval office after the death of Roosevelt, Harry Truman presented to Congress a proposal that amongst other things called for the extension of the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC), a war-time agency that had monitored discrimination against African Americans in hiring practices of government agencies and defense industry.
But with the opposition from Republicans and conservative southern Democrats who were dead set against such reforms, the FEPC was not extended. Then later on in 1947 Truman again took a stand on civil rights. His unsuccessful 1945 proposal to extend FEPC was deemed an effort to court black voters who were crucial to the Democratic Party. In the summer of 1947 Truman became the first President to address the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), declaring his forthright support for African Americans civil rights. Later in the same year, his blue-ribbon civil commission, which he had appointed in the wake of the failure to extend FEPC, produced a report entitled, To Secure These Rights a detailed and unabashed brief for civil rights legislation.
Strengthening of the Civil Reform Movements in Post War America
The little that had been accomplished during the Truman Administration with regard to civil rights was done by the president himself through executive orders that prohibited discrimination in the federal government and ended segregation in the armed services. During the Eisenhower administration, Supreme Court decisions and organized protests by African-Americans themselves challenged Jim Crow laws. Eisenhower, although he had little faith in the power of the judiciary alone to end discrimination, assumed full responsibility for seeing that the rulings of federal courts were obeyed. Congress, on the other hand, moved slowly to enhance the legal status of blacks and other minorities.
Eisenhower ordered the immediate desegregation of schools in Washington, D.C., which were under federal jurisdiction, and the process went smoothly in some of the 21 states that had legally segregated school systems. In other states, however, opposition to desegregation was strong. The Brown decision led to a revival of the Ku Klux Klan and to the creation of White Citizens Councils in the South to defend segregation. In March 1956, 100 southern senators and congressmen signed the Southern Manifesto, which accused the Court of abuse of judicial power and sought the restoration of legal segregation. 6
Eventually, Congress could no longer ignore the Supreme Court decisions and the growing activism of African-Americans themselves. With the backing of Senate majority leader Lyndon Johnson, Congress passed the first civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 created the Commission on Civil Rights to investigate cases in which the right to vote was denied on the basis of race or where the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment was violated. The law was strengthened somewhat through the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which gave federal judges the power to appoint arbitrators to ensure that blacks were allowed to register and vote. 6
The exploration of the civil rights struggle before and after the Second World War pours additional light on how the War widened the platform for minorities, particularly African Americans in the quest to acquiring an egalitarian society.
6. The Civil Rights Movement, Wiley Publishing, Inc. (2000). Available from
Evidently, without the education and employment that the Second World War offered to the blacks, they could not have had the bargaining power to agitate for their civil rights. This is due to the fact that they could have remained poor, uneducated and probably steeped in the mentality that they could not do the jobs that whites do.
After fighting in the War, helping the United States conquer its enemy, the blacks felt that they needed to be accorded respect for their contribution to the national prestige. Now, with their education, African Americans questioned the conscience of America through vibrant civil rights movements that continued after the War and gained momentum in the 60s. The White House and the law makers could no longer ignore the concerns of African Americans, paving way to crucial legislations like the Civil Rights Act of 1960.
Even though it seemed to have stifled the civil rights struggle by African Americans, in essence the Second World War speeded up the process by availing to blacks the education and monetary resources that they direly needed to succeed.
The Situation of African Americans before Second World War
Before the War, African Americans were at the lowest rung of the American society. They lived in poverty, lacked education and therefore faced the highest rates of unemployment. The year 1920 was in fact, the highest water mark of black employment in American industry but these gains were swiftly eroded by the Great Depression.
Changes during the Second World War
The War provided African Americans with the opportunity to get out of the crushing rural poverty. Many Blacks joined the military, escaping a decade of Depression and tenant farming in the South and Midwest. 2 This was a departure from the First World War, where the number of blacks conscripted was quite minimal. Arguably, this trend helped to create an avenue out of the penury that had characterized their social status.
Andrew E. Kersten, African American and World War II, OAH Magazine of History,
16, No. 3, (2002)13.
2. Claudia Reinhardt and Bill Ganzel, Civil Rights for Minorities, Farming in the 1940s. (Data Base on-line) available from httpwww.cliffsnotes.comstudy_guideThe-Civil-Rights-Movement, accession number 25238.
Even though the Army enlisted blacks, segregation continued there were separate black infantry regiments under white commanders the Army Air Corp black fighter wing was completely separate with their training at an all black university at Tuskegee, Alabama. Segregation was also in the Navy where Negro units were assigned most menial jobs on ships whereas the Marine didnt accept blacks. Essentially, black and white soldiers were trained in different bases.
Changes after the Second World War
After the War, the fight against segregation took a new dimension with more players agreeing with the oppressed minorities that there was need for change. In 1946, the Federal Council of Churches adopted a report that set the Council to advocate against segregation. This meant that American Protestantism was being challenged by the question of race. Before the Second World War, the denomination paid little attention to race as a social issue. But after the War, it was a frequent subject of denominational pronouncement and editorials in church press. And this suggests that the War was crucial in placing pressure upon white attitude towards blacks.
At the outset, the era of the WW II was considered the forgotten years of Negro revolution. It was also considered a watershed in history, particularly with blacks making advances as workers and military personnel and communities around America witnessing a dramatic rise in black social activism and political participation.
1. Ibid, 13.
2. Ibid, accession number 25238
3. Edward Orser, Racial Attitudes in Wartime The Protestant Churches during the Second World War, Church History 41, No. 3, (Sept. 1972) 337.
This interpretation lost its strength over time, since the social, political and economic gains were lost in the postwar period, something that contributed to the disillusionment and upheavals of the 60s.1 When blacks returned from the War they found a country that still didnt grant them full rights, necessitating the formation of a movement to push for the expansion of civil rights.
However, the importance of the War cannot be gainsaid it helped transform the economic and social status of not only blacks but also all Americans. This makes the War an unprecedented era that offered a platform for African Americans to seek for the Double V victory over fascism abroad and apartheid at home.1
On the other hand, the War provided education opportunities for blacks and exposed them to urbanization. Some black soldiers who had left farm jobs in the South decided not to return home. They moved to cities looking for work, similar to the knowledge they had acquired in the military.
Combating Segregation within the Army and Society
The experience of the First World War was instrumental in the formation of the racial policy in the Army in the Second World War. The policys architects were veterans of the first war and demonstrated the prejudice of that era in their judgment. Civil rights activists on the other hand, sought to eliminate the segregationist practices employed in the mobilization of First World War and win a fair representation of blacks in the
These radical changes were resisted by traditionalist Army staff, citing their evaluation of the poor performance of black units in the first war. The policy however, increased the number of types of black units and provided a wider distribution of those units to arms and services Army Air Forces and Signal Corps, without explaining how the numerous skilled Negroes could efficiently be used within the limitations of these ranks. For the sake of efficiency, the Army had devised a social rather than a military policy for employment of black troops.
The concern about the troop morale and discipline and the attendant problem of racial violence did not lead to a substantial revision of the Armys racial policy. On the contrary, the Army staff continued to insist that segregation was a national issue and that the Armys task was to defend the country, not alter its social customs.
By 1943, Negroes inside and outside the War Department had almost exhausted arguments for a policy change. Worth noting is that, this was just a year before the Presidential elections. The representatives of 25 civil rights groups formulated demands they presented to presidential candidates. This involved full integration of the Army abolition of racial quotas abolition of segregation in recreational and other Army facilities development of an education program in race relations in the Army greater black participation in combat forces and the progressive removal of black troops where they are subject to disrespect, abuse or even violence.
When he assumed the Oval office after the death of Roosevelt, Harry Truman presented to Congress a proposal that amongst other things called for the extension of the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC), a war-time agency that had monitored discrimination against African Americans in hiring practices of government agencies and defense industry.
But with the opposition from Republicans and conservative southern Democrats who were dead set against such reforms, the FEPC was not extended. Then later on in 1947 Truman again took a stand on civil rights. His unsuccessful 1945 proposal to extend FEPC was deemed an effort to court black voters who were crucial to the Democratic Party. In the summer of 1947 Truman became the first President to address the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), declaring his forthright support for African Americans civil rights. Later in the same year, his blue-ribbon civil commission, which he had appointed in the wake of the failure to extend FEPC, produced a report entitled, To Secure These Rights a detailed and unabashed brief for civil rights legislation.
Strengthening of the Civil Reform Movements in Post War America
The little that had been accomplished during the Truman Administration with regard to civil rights was done by the president himself through executive orders that prohibited discrimination in the federal government and ended segregation in the armed services. During the Eisenhower administration, Supreme Court decisions and organized protests by African-Americans themselves challenged Jim Crow laws. Eisenhower, although he had little faith in the power of the judiciary alone to end discrimination, assumed full responsibility for seeing that the rulings of federal courts were obeyed. Congress, on the other hand, moved slowly to enhance the legal status of blacks and other minorities.
Eisenhower ordered the immediate desegregation of schools in Washington, D.C., which were under federal jurisdiction, and the process went smoothly in some of the 21 states that had legally segregated school systems. In other states, however, opposition to desegregation was strong. The Brown decision led to a revival of the Ku Klux Klan and to the creation of White Citizens Councils in the South to defend segregation. In March 1956, 100 southern senators and congressmen signed the Southern Manifesto, which accused the Court of abuse of judicial power and sought the restoration of legal segregation. 6
Eventually, Congress could no longer ignore the Supreme Court decisions and the growing activism of African-Americans themselves. With the backing of Senate majority leader Lyndon Johnson, Congress passed the first civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 created the Commission on Civil Rights to investigate cases in which the right to vote was denied on the basis of race or where the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment was violated. The law was strengthened somewhat through the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which gave federal judges the power to appoint arbitrators to ensure that blacks were allowed to register and vote. 6
The exploration of the civil rights struggle before and after the Second World War pours additional light on how the War widened the platform for minorities, particularly African Americans in the quest to acquiring an egalitarian society.
6. The Civil Rights Movement, Wiley Publishing, Inc. (2000). Available from
Evidently, without the education and employment that the Second World War offered to the blacks, they could not have had the bargaining power to agitate for their civil rights. This is due to the fact that they could have remained poor, uneducated and probably steeped in the mentality that they could not do the jobs that whites do.
After fighting in the War, helping the United States conquer its enemy, the blacks felt that they needed to be accorded respect for their contribution to the national prestige. Now, with their education, African Americans questioned the conscience of America through vibrant civil rights movements that continued after the War and gained momentum in the 60s. The White House and the law makers could no longer ignore the concerns of African Americans, paving way to crucial legislations like the Civil Rights Act of 1960.
Even though it seemed to have stifled the civil rights struggle by African Americans, in essence the Second World War speeded up the process by availing to blacks the education and monetary resources that they direly needed to succeed.
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