American History

The Market Revolution of the early Nineteenth Century

The Market Revolution of the early 19th century which began around 1815 up until 1846, no doubt rocked America and brought with it opportunities for prosperity, freedom, and the realization of a concept called theAmerican Dream. In the American Dream, first expressed by James Truslow Adams, it stated that citizens of every rank feel that life should be better and richer and fuller for every man, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement However, a lot of youth who went to far lands to peddle goods, came back to show off their new found wealth to the admiration and envy of their peers who were still tied to their fathers farmland. As a result, this influenced many of these youths to go full time into peddling in the believe that peddling was a get rich quick scheme. It also shifted focus and interest from farming to peddling (Guild, 1937, p. 250).

Mr. James Guild was a Tunbridge farm boy who in the year 1818 barely three years into the revolution, and having reached the legal age of adulthood (21years) was deeply unsatisfied with his situation, which he referred to in his journal as a long confined situation. He was also determined to escape the controlling hold and unpleasant treatment mete out to him by his master, (Mr. Hutchinson) and the apron strings of his aunt, (Aunt Jenush). Aside this, he had an overwhelming resolve to change his job title from a mere farm boy into something more glorifying (though he wasnt exactly sure what this was going to be). So it was that Mr. Guild set out on a journey to nowhere in particular, in search of greener pastures living his family and loved ones behind.

The historical report of the metamorphosis that the career path of Mr. Guild underwent from being a Peddler in 1818 to becoming one of the most sought after miniature painters in London six years later gives a peek into the gradual process brought about by the Market Revolution that culminated in the brighter prospects offered street peddlers and others engaged in similar trade. But being that many of these peddlers like Guild, had to travel far and wide with little or no money and into strange lands where most times they met with a lot of hostility, were homeless, and sometimes lonely, this exposed them to a lot of risk like terminal illnesses, theft of goods and money, and harassment.

Another issue that was prevalent during the peddling era was the tendency for peddlers to buy anything from buttons, hair combs, needles, wrist watch, etc. at almost give-away prices and then resell at unbelievably exorbitant prices. For instance, Guild got an opportunity to buy about five dozens of scissors at 3 cents each, and actually attempted selling at a ridiculous 12 cents each with the intention of making a crazy profit of up to 300 To survive in that era, a peddler needed to be flexible and display his Yankee smarts. This Guild displayed when he ventured into potentially more lucrative businesses like cutting profiles, drawing likenesses and actually starting a writing school as a response to the losses he was continuously making as a peddler of petty goods.

As a result of the industrial opportunities brought about by the market revolution, manufacturers produced far more than was needed to cater for their local market. This popularized the idea of peddling across boarders to dispose of these goods and make huge profits in the process.The transportation system available then was not far reaching enough and also was very expensive. So, in the absence of an effective and affordable transportation system, the peddling entrepreneurs cashed in on the independent, energetic, ambitious and maybe ignorant mindsets of youths within legal adult age who were fed up with the prospects of farming, by entering into business contracts with them that involved payment by way of wages or commision. On the contrary, Mr. James Guild had no master nor did he enter into contracts with any entrepreneur. Instead, he was more or less an independent peddler who plied his trade across many towns and cities all by himself. This independence, as it were, actually came at a cost, because in the many times that Guild experienced untold hardship, or was ill, or homeless, he craved the protection and loving care of his family which were not forthcoming due to this independence.

Though many peddlers where able to improve their financial situations and those of their families through the returns or proceeds made from peddling or other very innovative ventures like painting likenesses, starting a writing school, and painting miniatures (in the peculiar case of James Guild), it was not without its problems or consequences. For instance, pre market revolution, young adult men were contented with working on their fathers farm even into their late twenties in anticipation of eventually inheriting land and independence from their fathers when they must have come of age. But with the advent of the market revolution came a craze for pre-mature independence, impatience, and unhealthy aspiration for sudden wealth. This mindset shift caused youths to view the influence their fathers had on them pre-adulthood as restraining. As a result, children became unruly, insurbodinate and even the servants attitude and respect for their masters nose-dived. With time, more and more young adultmen left their fathers farm to live out their early adulthood fantasies in a state of semi-independence in the market place.

Interestingly, even the few sons that were ready to work on their fathers farm, having caught the entrepreneurial or capitalist bug as a result of the affluence displayed by their peddling peers demanded payment for work done on their fathers farm This became a shocking deviation from pre-revolution era when sons worked for their father more out of a sense of love and duty in return for food, shelter and clothing than for personal financial gratification.

One can even liken the frenzy with which youths embraced peddling as their link to wealth, freedom and independence in the market revolution of the early 19th century to the California gold rush between 1848 to1855. For example, by the time James Guild finished applying his assorted skill sets in Boston, New York, and Charleston, he had amassed a total of 13,000 in profits He later travelled to London, and established himself as a professional painter, dining with the high and mighty in London society, and getting invited to join an exclusive club of fine artists. This success story, plus other stories of formerly penniless youths who went on a peddling expedition and returned wealthy thereby advancing in social status, became the fuel that drove many youths wishing for same fortune to engage in peddling without a care in the world for the inherent dangers.

From a Farm boy in 1818, the Journal of James Guild chronicles how Mr. Guild became one of the greatest miniature painters winning several medals for his superior portraits and miniature paintings in Europe. For a better part of seven years, he met with great misfortune in the course of his travels. Consequently, he despaired, cried, fought, got sick (many times), but managed to struggle through in the hope that if he tries hard enough, he may achieve for himself a respectable status.

But it is very important to note here too that, as it was with Mr. James Guild, many Americans during the Market Revolution of the early 19th century, hoping to turn their fortunes around for the better had to travel long distances, dwelling with complete strangers, endangering their lives in the process. By virtue of these travels, they became disengaged from their friends and family and this caused them great emotional turmoil.

In my opinion, I feel that this era brought much danger to peddlers, strained father-son relationships and caused many of these youths to be alienated from family, friends, and society. A price I think was too high to pay for the good that the freedom, opportunity, and prosperity of the early 19th century presented.

Privacy Considerations in Design Projects

When engaging in any type of design project, it is essential to have an open dialogue with the client regarding the issue of privacy. Different clients will have different needs and desires, and it is essential to take into consideration requirements for privacy in regard to the needs of the unique clients and their particular behaviors (Menconi Stewart-Pollack, 2005). Engaging in design projects always deals with the subject of privacy, and the ways in which clients want to limit or increase exposure to human and environmental elements is a necessary component of the design process.

Client behaviors are always able to be influenced by the actions taken by the designer. In regard to privacy, it is necessary to know which elements of the design need to be formulated in particular ways in order to satisfy the needs of the client in relation to the environment (Menconi Stewart-Pollack, 2005). It is possible that in an urban area, clients may desire more of a boundary between themselves and other people in the busy environment. If the environment is a sunny region, clients may desire to limit sunlight, or perhaps the opposite, making use of the benefits of sunlight by allowing it to enter. There will always be sensory considerations to make in regard to having a comprehensive overview of the privacy needs of clients.

The relation of the individual to the environment is always a balance of stressors, and it makes sense for designers to take into consideration the ways in which clients are particularly affected by environmental stimuli. If proactive privacy measures can be taken beforehand in regard to beginning design projects, then the happiness and satisfaction of the clients are more likely to be ensured (Menconi Stewart-Pollack, 2005). The level, thickness, and type of boundary between clients and other people and situations in their environments have to be crafted as an essential element of the design project which matches the complete desires and requirements of the client.

If you suspect that your family came to the US and entered through Ellis Island - use the search on the home page. If you find something and are comfortable with sharing, please let us know what you found.

1. I attempted to search for my mothers family on the Ellis Island home page but did not have enough information for a proper search. I believe my family entered the United States through other cities.

2) On the links at the top of the page, scroll over Ellis Island and look that the top three (Immigrant Experience, Timeline, History). Look especially at the peopling of America section - what do you note about the composition of immigrants in the 1820-70s timeperiod versus the 1880s time period

2. The majority of people immigrating in between 1820-1879 came from western and northern Europe. During this time, immigration was being strongly encouraged by the government, despite some protests from anti-Catholic groups. More people were needed in the United States, not just to work, but also to fight in the Civil War.

By 1880, things had changed. The famine in Ireland had ended, and the leading immigrants were coming from eastern and southern Europe and the Middle East. More people were coming to the United States to escape religious persecution. No immigrants from Asia are reported during this time, largely due to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.

3) I also posted a link to some Ellis Island video clips. These are interesting to watch (this is not required, but is highly recommended). If you watch these, what are your thoughts about the processes used to allow people into the US during that time

I watched the clips of the arrival at Ellis Island, immigrants being detained on the island, and passing the medical and legal inspection. My first thought is that I cant believe people made this journey without a guarantee they would actually get to enter the United States. Next, I find it unfair that the doctors conducting the medical inspections began the inspection as the immigrants were walking up the steps. The immigrants had just spent weeks on a boat I cant imagine anyone was able to walk steadily and appear robust at this moment. During the clip about the legal inspection, it is amazing to me that the most important question was What is your name and if answered correctly, the immigrant was almost guaranteed clearance.

Watching these clips make me feel very lucky not to have been an immigrant during this time period because the entire journeyprocess was so difficult I also feel fortunate not to have to immigrate to the United States today, because while the process is different, it is still very difficult. you suspect that your family came to the US and entered through Ellis Island - use the search on the home page. If you find something and are comfortable with sharing.

Rhodes v. Chapman

The spectacular rise in the criminal convictions in the last three decades has resulted in the overcrowding of prison institutions not only in the United States but also all over the world. Obviously, public and government attitude favors imprisoning convicted criminals for as long as possible. Unfortunately, this general attitude has caused a significant increase in prison population, thus forcing prison-reform groups and the inmates themselves to file protests and lawsuits against the state governments and penal administrators. Critics, however, claim that if shared tents and small quarters are good enough for the National Guard, Marines, and Army, then a one-man cell shared by two inmates is certainly good enough for the inmates. All the same, because of some of the disturbing conditions brought about by the practice of housing two or more prisoners in a single cell in many penal institutions, judges are becoming more compassionate to the argument that this practice indeed amounts to cruel and unusual punishment. Most of these judges are drawing the meaning of cruel and unusual punishment from the evolving ideals of decency of a maturing society. However, even though nowadays double celling is somewhat a restrictive form of punishment, it is without a doubt not a cruel and unusual punishment, but only part of the consequence that criminals necessarily forfeit for their wrongdoings against society.

Overview of the Eight Amendment

The Eight Amendment of the United States Constitution states that Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted (Head, 2010). By looking at the wordings of this Amendment, it is very evident that prohibition against barbarous punishments and tortures were clearly on the minds of the members of congress at the time of the Amendments deliberation. The Eight Amendment basically enforces restriction upon punishmentsthat they cannot be unusual or cruel. It embodies idealistic and broad concepts of decency, humanity, civilized standards and dignity, against which conditions of detention must be judged (Rhodes v. Chapman, 1981). Hence, the realization of the Eight Amendment was very significant because most of the early Americans were very concerned with the practice of disproportionate and arbitrary punishment. In fact, from the time of the Amendments implementation, the most frequently cited part of the Amendment is the part that deals with its prohibition against unusual and cruel punishment.

The very nature of the cruel and unusual phrase depends on the evolving societal standards. Throughout the years, the Court has construed the Eight Amendment in a dynamic and flexible manner, and it has even extended its interpretation beyond the barbaric physical punishments. The Amendment is continually taking a vital and expansive nature by drawing its interpretation from the developing standards of decency, which is a mark of a growing society. Accordingly, because of the importance and attractiveness of the Eight Amendment, it has become the most modified amendment among all the amendments in the Constitution in terms of scope and standards (Head, 2010).

In modern years, the fundamental legal question on cruel and unusual punishment was answered by the United States Supreme Court in the landmark case of Rhodes vs. Chapman (1981). The Court has explained that inhumane prison conditions can violate the Eight Amendment, although such limitation is not mentioned in the official wordings of the provision. Furthermore, the Court clarified that the Eight Amendment is violated, even though the punishment is not physically barbaric, as long as it involves a wanton and unnecessary imposition of pain, or is abhorrently inconsistent to the severity of the crime. In view of these justifications, the Eight Amendment undeniably denotes de facto punishments, whether they are formally passed on as punishment or not (Head, 2010).

Overview of the Fourteenth Amendment

The Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution was principally designed to protect the civil liberties of and grant citizenship to recently freed slaves. The heart of the amendment is its first section, which declared that all person born or naturalized in the United States to be both national and state citizens, and which prohibited the states from abridging their privileges and immunities, depriving any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, or denying them equal protection of the laws. (Foner, 2004)

Since the Bill of Rights, the Fourteenth Amendment was considered by many as the most significant constitutional change in the history of the United States. In accordance with the due process and equal protection of the laws imposed by the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court made a ruling in Louisiana v. Resweber that the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment shall incorporate all of the substantive protections of other amendments, including Eight Amendments cruel and unusual punishment clause. Accordingly, through this pronouncement, states can apply the cruel and unusual punishment clause of the Eight Amendment through the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution.

Overview of Southern Ohio Correctional Facility

Southern Ohio Correctional Facility is a maximum-security state prison in Lucasville, Ohio. The facility wasbuilt during the early 1970s which holds 1,620 cells, school rooms, workshops, gymnasiums, library, barbershop, commissary, a hospital ward, two chapels, and day rooms (Rhodes v. Chapman, 1981). In addition, the outdoors have a garden, visitation area, and a recreational field. Each cell at the facility measures about 63 square feet with toilet, sink with hot and cold running water, night stand, and two beds. In addition, every cell has an air and heating circulation vent, and almost all of the cells have a window that inmates can utilize. Moreover, all of the cells have a radio, shelf and a cabinet built into their walls, as well as one wall of all cells is made of bars through which the inmates can be viewed. Considering all of these provisions, the District Court has illustrated the correctional facility of Southern Ohio as undoubtedly a top-flight, first rate facility (Rhodes v. Chapman, 1981).Facts of Rhodes v. Chapman

Kelly Chapman, who was imprisoned for armed robbery, along with his inmate, Richard Jaworski, brought a class suit in the District Court against the state officials responsible for the administration of the Southern Ohio Correctional Facility by claiming that they are violating the constitutional provision against unusual and cruel punishment (Rhodes v. Chapman, 1981). They brought this action on behalf of themselves and of all the other inmates housed in this correctional facility because of the latters practice of housing two inmates for every one-man cell. Chapman asserted that the one-man cell he shared with Jaworski provided him a personal space of only 32 square feet. Chapman claimed that such space was less than what the state of Ohio demands for five-week-old animals in feed lots (Rhodes v. Chapman, 1981). In short, the action was filed because of Chapmans claim that the cell mates in the facility were confined too closely, which violated their constitutional rights against cruel and unusual punishment. Accordingly, the respondents sought an injunction barring petitioners from permanently housing more than one inmate in a cell designed for one inmate.Issue

Whether or not the utilization of double celling at prison is a cruel and unusual punishment proscribed by the Eight Amendment, as made applicable through the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution.Ruling

The District Court through Judge Timothy Hogan conducted extensive findings of fact regarding the correctional facility on the basis of a surprised inspection that the court carried out as well as of the evidence offered at trial (Rhodes v. Chapman, 1981). The findings of the court, which were not contended as erroneous by either party, described the inmate population, the physical plant, and the double celling in the Southern Ohio Correctional Facility. Although the overall findings of the court was positive as it declared that the correctional facility is indeed a top-flight, first-class facility, the court all the same concluded that the double celling in question has violated the Eight Amendment of the Constitution and that it is a cruel and unusual punishment (Rhodes v. Chapman, 1981). This decision of the Federal District Court was based on five considerations

the fact that the double celling in question was a permanent condition

the recommendations that inmates placed in double celled quarters spend most of their time in their cells with their cell inmates

the proposal of a number of studies that every inmate should have no less than 555 square feet of living quarters

the prison accommodated roughly 38 percent more inmates than its intended capacity and

prison inmates were serving lengthy imprisonment terms (Rhodes v. Chapman, 1981).

Accordingly, the District Court enjoined the relocation of some inmates from Southern Ohio Correctional Facility awaiting a final decision. Because of the aforesaid decision, Governor James Rhodes elevated the case to the Court of Appeals, Sixth Circuit, on account of the state. The appellant claimed that the conclusion of the District Court indicates that double celling is per se unconstitutional when in actual fact it is not. Nevertheless, the appellate court declared that the decision of the District Court on double celling as violation of the constitutional provision against unusual and cruel punishment reads that it is not per se unconstitutional, but applicable only under the circumstances at Southern Ohio Correctional Facility. Therefore, the Court of Appeals held that District Courts conclusion is not erroneous and affirmed its findings. As a result of the appellate courts findings, the petitioners further elevated the case to the Supreme Court, praying that the original decision be reversed.

Supreme Court

Taking into consideration the findings of fact of the District Court, the United States Supreme Court held that double celling employed in prison is not tantamount to cruel and unusual punishment. The Court concluded that all the considerations on which the District Court and Court of Appeals hinged on are not enough to sustain their constitutional conclusion. Basic is the rule that conditions of confinement must not be abhorrently inconsistent to the evilness of the crime justifying imprisonment, nor may they involve infliction of wanton or unnecessary pain (Rhodes v. Chapman, 1981). However, the lower courts have failed to prove cruel and unusual punishment because of the absence of any the aforesaid conditions that can justify double celling as unconstitutional. Upholding the findings of the lower court would only confirm the erroneous assumption that double celling inflicts pain and per se unconstitutional. In fact, the Supreme Court found that the imposition of double celling did not result in confiscations of basic sanitation, medical care, or food, nor did it intensify violence among inmates or produce other unbearable conditions for prison confinement.

The law mandates that prison officials may not use unwarranted physical force against the prison inmates, and must make sure that the inmates receive sufficient medical care, shelter, clothing, and food, as well as take reasonable measures to ensure the wellbeing of the inmates. Southern Ohio Correctional Facility, having characterized as a top-flight, first rate facility, has certainly not fallen short of the aforesaid responsibilities. The law does not mandate to provide the inmates with comfortable prisons since any person convicted of serious crimes cannot be unconstrained of discomfort. The Eight Amendment of the Constitution only imposes limitation upon punishment, which cannot be unusual and cruel. Among the wanton and unnecessary inflictions of punishment are those that have no penological reason. In the given case, however, Supreme Court found that there is a clear absence of infliction of excessive or unnecessary pain or force to the inmates. Therefore, the Supreme Court reversed the judgment of the Court of Appeals there being no violation of the Eight and Fourteenth Amendments.

Personal Assessment

Society must reprimand those people who contravene its legally imposed rules. However, the punishment must always be applied within the boundaries laid down by the Constitution. The conditions of imprisonment of criminals must not entail unnecessary and wanton infliction of pain, nor may the conditions be grossly disproportionate to the evilness of the crime justifying imprisonment. The confinement of a person into a prison institution is without doubt a form of punishment, thus it is subject to the examination under the Eighth Amendment standards of the Constitution. State governments must, therefore, be sensitive to the required standard of the Amendment by providing inmates their medical needs, healthy and safe environment, and a setting that uphold their welfare. However, it is an accepted fact that the conditions enforced inside the prison institutions are not comparable with societys civilized standards of modern life. All the same, the facts reveal that the conditions inside the Southern Ohio Correctional Facility are not unusual or cruel, and under present-day standards they should not be regarded as unconstitutional. Double celling is only part of the punishment that convicted criminals pay off for their evil doings against society.

The Eight Amendment of the United States Constitution enforces that punishment cannot be unusual or cruel. The definition on cruel and unusual punishment was answered by the United States Supreme Court in the landmark case of Rhodes vs. Chapman. The issue raised in this given case was whether or not double celling at prison is a cruel and unusual punishment proscribed by the Eight Amendment, as made applicable through the Fourteenth Amendment, of the United States Constitution. The Supreme Court held that there was no cruel and unusual punishment because of the simple fact that the inmates conditions of confinement are not abhorrently inconsistent to the evilness of the crime that justified their imprisonment, nor their conditions involved infliction of wanton or unnecessary pain. The law does not mandate the state governments to provide their inmates with comfortable prisons since any person convicted of serious crimes cannot be freed from any discomfort. The Eight Amendment of the Constitution only imposes limitation upon punishment, which cannot be unusual and cruel. Therefore, although to some extent, double celling may be viewed as restrictive, yet it is not cruel and unusual punishment, but only part of the consequence that criminals are made to endure for their wrongdoings against society.

The Federalist Papers

The Federalist Papers, probably next to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution in terms of importance, are a series of articles written to help boost the campaign to ratify the newly-drafted Constitution of the United States. The principal authors of these papers were Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. To give the impression these articles were written by a single person, they all wrote under a common pen name, Publius alluding to the famed Roman consul Publius Valerius Publicola. There were a total of 85 articles written between October of 1789 and May of 1788. It is interesting to note that these papers were written particularly to sell the idea of accepting the Constitution in the state of New York. Of all the existing states at the time, New York was one of the critical ones where the fate of the Constitution rests. During the Constitutional Convention, New Yorks delegates walked out and its governor, George Clinton, strongly opposed the Constitution because it would upset the balance of power of the state by compromising its autonomy guaranteed by the Articles of Confederation making the state far more prosperous through the taxes and other duties it imposed on its neighbors.

It can be inferred from the Federalist Papers that Hamilton and Madison, who also happened to be two of the delegates to helped draft the Constitution, had faith in the peoples ethics in helping to establish a republican government as opposed to either maintaining the status quo of the unstable Confederation Congress or reverting to the absolute monarchy which they expelled in the war of independence. Furthermore, they are sure nobody would want to go back to the latter. In spite of the strong skepticism of the people, Hamilton, pin particular was very optisimistic that the Constitution will be accepted by all. In the first essay, he made his case very clear. Through the first article, he began by telling the people how a strong central government would still be beneficial to them (New York), inadequate the present government was (the Confederation Congress) and one key point was to compare the Constitution with their own Constitution to see that there was no conflict of interest whatsoever. In addition, he stated that they had nothing to lose by being part of this Union.

In the the 8th article, also written by Hamilton, he further emphasized the need for this collective security to prevent any conflict from happening between the states as well as from any foreign invasion. This collective security under the Union is sure to bring about peace and order making the United States conducive and ripe for economic stability. He further cited the case of Europe where wars have occurred for centuries because of their division. He made an inference that wars would not happen in Europe if only they were united under one government although during that time, it was wishful thinking and an idea of a united Europe was rather far-fetched during the 18th century. He went to add that because of Americas geographical isolation, the Union is preserved from the troubles and chaos of Europe as well as any threat it may pose. This insularity would be Americas best defense against any threat. This was further complimented by the 10th article, written by Madison, which dealt with protection against internal conflicts.

It can be inferred that while democracy was something people back then and even until now desire, it would be realistically impossible to practice given the diversity of the people of the United States. It was for this reason the Constitution was created calling for a strong central government to help promote stability. Madison cited that there will be factions and these factions would want to promote their interests and it would come to the point when their interests would clash with the interests of another faction of equal caliber. When these two (or more) factions would keep asserting their own interests, conflict would ensure.

The role then of a strong central government would be to regulate these factions, to keep them under control. Realistically, it would be impossible to take away the causes of the conflict and to attempt to do so would mean suspending liberties which would make people decry a return to tyranny. Furthermore, the role of this strong central government would also to serve as damage control to the problems these factions would cause.

In the 51st article, written jointly by Hamilton and Madison, it talks about the separation of powers of this strong central government guaranteed by the Constitution. While they were selling the idea of having a strong central government, Hamilton and Madison somehow sensed the apparent skepticism, or fears of the people of having such a government with so many powers, especially if it would be concentrated on one individual or institution, thereby inviting tyranny to set in. In this article, both Hamilton and Madison tried to allay these fears by stating the feature of the separation of powers among the different branches of government the executive, legislative and judiciary. They will each have specific powers and these powers do not overlap but rather serve as a check and balance to prevent one from becoming too powerful or prevent the usurpation of powers, thereby preventing any tyrants from emerging.

In conclusion, the authors of the Federalist Papers, were hopeful that the American people could be trusted in creating and maintaining a republican form of government. They were very optimistic and about two centuries later, they were proven to be correct in their belief. They admit that the Constitution has flaws but for them, it was by far the best they could offer for the United States of America and fortunately, the generations of Americans have made it work despite its deficiencies.

Historical Site Evaluation Old State House Museum in Boston.

History tells that the Old State House is a building that played one of the most important roles in the history of Boston and of the United States of America in particular. It is the oldest surviving public building in the heart of Boston that was established during the colonization period in the New England. As a historic landmark, this building witnessed the Americans Declaration of Independence from Great Britain. The declaration headed by Thomas Jefferson which was read in 1776 gave birth to United States of America which was then composed only of thirteen states. Since then, the building was considered to be the most significant considering that it served as the historical center of New England during that crucial time in history. The building itself witnessed the exchanges of opinion of political leaders as well as of the succeeding Royal Governors as it held several government offices for almost a century. Most importantly, it recorded events concerning the autocracy or domination of the British crown that led to the American Revolution and finally the declaration of independence. After the declaration, Boston raised itself to become the wealthiest and most influential city in 1760s.

Despite remodeling exertion done on the building, Boston retained its old features to commemorate the events that took place in this building. The bricks on the frontage were a new design after the wooden house was burned in the fire in 1711 the bricks survived after the building was succumbed in the fire for the second and third time in 1747 and in 1832. Several alternations were made especially in the interior part of the building making it as functional as possible to house different government offices. Originally, it contained merchants exchange office on the first floor, the Council Chamber and Chamber for the Courts on the second floor, and several other function rooms such as the public galleries. Other restoration efforts were conducted after some of its components crumbled or deteriorated due to the construction of subway underneath the building.

What story does it tell, or should it tell
Nowadays, the once reigned as the victory symbol of the United States independence is rarely recognized as it is surrounded by tall edifices in the busiest district of Boston. Its position serves no more than a busy economic district and a major public transportation connecting point between different directions. Its importance nowadays reduces to being a museum and a wedding venue. But the question of at what extent should people pay respect to this building as a historical landmark brings to ones consciousness its historical significance to the freedom and independence that the American nation enjoys. Primarily, the building tells about the humble beginning of America with its thirteen united states and at the same time, it should tell the young generation Americans how nationalism and patriotism creates possibilities for the country.

History can undeniably arouse peoples sentiments over the events that are associated with a given structure. For instance, Glazier cannot help himself but to utter these words out of high regard for his country. He stated that the Old State House serves as with a thousand and one other reminders of the citys brilliant historical record especially that the structure has very few alterations to preserve its original aura. The Old State House by description during the 19th century was a large brick building, at the head of state-street, which runs east and west it stands about the middle of the city, has a copula, and looks venerable from age. As a government building, Royall (1826) noted several offices that contained in the building such as the legislature, the treasure of the state, office of the governor and its council, and the offices of the adjutant general and secretary of state Among popular buildings or structures in America, this edifice contained the largest and the most important records of events.

The site should tell about the heroism and bravery of the American people as well as the fulfillment of a dream that were dreamed by those great men who envisioned what independence can make of the nation. That historical site in Boston should tell that the progress and the economic prosperity that every Bostonian now enjoyed was the legacy of men whose vision and aspiration were not for their personal gains but for the interests of the American people in general. The site should tell more than a mere history of the American struggle to gain independence but it should also tell about what unity and cooperation along with ideals and nationalism can do for a nation.

Unfortunately however, the site was only a shadow of the past. The flame of nationalism that of nationalism that motivated men to stand against the oppression which made them great men, and the visions that motivated them to laid down their lives for a common cause was drowned by the noise of economic activities and the individualism and consumerism that took the place of nationalism, of ideals, and of the vision of a strong independent nation. The site should continue to tell every Americans that what the American nations were the ideals, the visions, the nationalism, and the unity and cooperation of the early American for the sake of achieving the greater purpose, that of establishing a nation that is independent, progressive, and democratic.

What is the sites significance to the story of Boston in the Revolution
One of the most important events that ignited the Boston revolution is the Boston Tea Party in December 16, 1773. This event was supposed to be an isolated case in the sense that it was not planned as part of the mass uprising but merely in protest of the parliamentary decision to the East India Company a de facto tea monopoly that resulted to unfair taxation imposed by the British colonizer on the colonial America. Ron Chernow even described this event anonymous salvo The punitive measures imposed by Britain put Boston under the British military rules which implemented various harsh measures such as closing the Boston port and forbidding assemblies or public meetings. However these developments to ripening of Boston revolution as great men such as John Adams and the rest of the Bostonians united under a common cause, independence

The site was a silent witness to all these struggles. The site according to a book entitled Harpers Magazine Volume 34, was intimately associated with the men and the times of revolution The site served as the first main battle ground in Boston during the revolution. The Book contended that in the balcony of the old state building that the first President received the welcome of the men who had helped win the revolution and found the Government. The book further contended that it was in this site that that the encroachment of British imperial power were strenuously resisted. In the words of John Adams, it was in this site that the American Independence was born. The sites significance to the story of Boston Revolution is reflected in detail by Harper Magazine as follows

In this old building, were held colonial courts. Here also, were the Council Chamber, hung with the portraits of Charles II and James II, and the hall of representative of the colony, the body which was afterward known by the great title The great and General Court. In the old council chamber, said John Adams, American Independence was born. Here James Otis and Thatcher thundered against the writs of Assistance. Here, in his famous speech of February, 1761, Otis declared that the principles of the writs had cost one king of England his head and another, his throne and here he uttered the war-cry of the revolution, Taxation without representation is tyranny. The Boston Port bill says the advertiser of the city, in eloquent protest, was aimed at rebellion which had asserted it self in the Old State House. In its very shadow, the Boston massacre was perpetrated. (Harpers Magazine, Volume 34) p. 260.

The significance of the site therefore to the story of Boston revolution was something that the present generation should not take for granted because it was there that the seeds of American freedom that every American enjoyed today were first planted. These historical sites bear the memories and the spirits of the great men and women who had offered their lives in order to gain independence from harsh colonial rule that afforded the freedom enjoyed not only by the American people but every freedom loving people all over the world as the United States of America continues to do its best to liberate people who are oppressed by tyrannical rule in different parts of the globe.

Rita Hayworth in the USO

United service organization commonly abbreviated as USO is a non profit making organization that is private. It offers recreational and morale services to the US military members, with programs spread in more than one hundred and forty centers worldwide. Ever since USO was established in 1941, it has worked closely with the defense department and has offered entertainment and support to the armed forces of the United States. The organization mainly relies on private donations and on goods, services and funds from the defense department. Although it is chartered congressionally, USO is not an agency of the American government. During the period of the second world conflict, USO became very useful in entertaining the US military troops. American women involvement in USO was one of the several ways through which they participated in the second world conflict. One of USOs women who featured prominently in the WWII was Rita Hayworth she was one of the greatest pinup starlets (Vignola, 2004).

Rita Hayworth in the USO
The art of pinup reached its climax during the period of WWII and several experts in the field of art have a strong feeling that this art will probably never be the same again. Pinup refers to a poster representing the dream of every man in a woman who is considered to be perfect. American soldiers in the WWII displayed several pinups since they provided them with something alluring and sexy to look at and assist in getting off their minds with the violence graphics of the conflict they had gone through all day long. Rita Hayworth, a significant starlet of pinups of the 1930s and 40s had a long acting career that was also fulfilling. Rita immensely assisted in the efforts of war by selling the war bonds that were being broadcasted on radio shows. More than five million copies of Rita Hayworths photo in which she was in the lace and satin nightgown appeared on the cover of life magazine in 1941. They were later sent to sailors, marines and soldiers fighting in WWII. This lively redhead particularly did not like being called a symbol of sex, but if Rita Hayworths photos provided the American soldiers with courage and assisted them to recall what they were fighting for upon returning home, then Rita was certainly for it (Simmon, 1978).

It is in on doubt that Rita Hayworth is one of the greatest actresses of the 20th century. She is also one of the most celebrated movie stars in Columbia pictures. Born in New York City in 1918, she was taught how to perform and dance at an early age by Casino, who was her father. As she grew up and gained more and more dancing skills, Rita became a dancing partner to his father and together they traveled in circuit clubs where she was initially discovered by one of the executives of Fox Film. She started her career in the film industry at 20th Century Fox where she was performing in movies of low budget. She later signed a contract in 1937 with Columbia pictures. Rita made some few more pictures in this name, before changing it to Rita Hayworth, which she did by taking up the maiden name of her mother. In the year 1938, alongside Cary Grant, Rita Hayworth was cast in Only angels have wings this gave her the boost that she needed so much in taking her career to a higher level. This particular casting also brought about sharp attention from Harry Cohn, the studio head (Pettijohn II Tesser, 1999).

Several of the key foot soldiers included in the mission of USO were American women who were charged with the task of providing the US troops with friendly diversion. Most of the US troops were teenagers or were in their twenties. The centers of USO world wide recruited thousands of female volunteers to dance, serve doughnuts, and chat with the US troops. Julia Carson, a USOs historian describes this as a nostalgic hour that was designed to comfort and cheer the American soldiers. Black American women rushed to rally the society around the American soldiers and created several programs for them. By the year 1946, the hostesses were serving more than two thousand American soldiers each day. They could also provide facilities for the soldiers who were wounded and convalescent to those on leave. The American women went to fraternal organizations and black businesses so that they could get sponsorship for the USO organization (Vignola, 2004).

Women were the main entertainers performing at shows. Various stars such as Judy Garland, Marlene Dietrich, Rita Hayworth and Betty Grable had traveled for more than one million miles. In a single tour, Rita Hayworth managed to visit six US troops camps giving thousands of autographs before coming back from Texas, where she was reported to have nervous breakdown that was full fledged due to over enthusiasm. Lily Pons, an opera singer, after performing a serious song to the US troops serving in Burma, an applause blew off that ended up stunning even the performers who were most seasoned. In a letter that she wrote later, she said that each and every American woman puts on a halo, and those women who represent her should not put theirs off, they should instead keep it on (Vignola, 2004).

Life at USO was very busy for the American women serving in the organization, they were charged with the responsibility of entertaining the military troops based both overseas and locally. In most cases, these entertainers placed their lives in severe danger as they either perform or travel under highly hazardous conditions in fact some of them lost their lives while in service. The nature of their duty involved a lot of traveling and spending sleepless nights. This could lead to exhaustion of these women who at times could get very little time of resting. The fatigue resulting from the nature of their work is one of the possible reasons that led to the break down of Rita Hayworth (Pettijohn II Tesser, 1999).

Women who served in the USO during WWII did a great job in making the American soldiers directly involved in the fighting to forget their worries and troubles for a moment and think about something attractive and appealing to their eyes. They entertained and took care of the US troops, and this gave the soldiers all the morale they needed to go on fighting and eventually win the war. For Rita Hayworth, just like the other starlets in performing for the US soldiers in different capacities, the task were at times overwhelming making them to be fatigued and break down. They however did not relent on their duty of encouraging the soldiers. WWII is therefore incomplete without mentioning the vital roles that were played by the American women through their USO organization.